Category: Spray Basics

Basic Sprayer Math Demystified
Sprayer math can be intimidating, but the effort gives solid value. When combined with a calibrated sprayer you reap the following benefits:
- Estimate how long a job will take.
- Estimate how much spray mix is required.
- Estimate how much crop protection product must be ordered for the season.
- Populate spray records which allow you to review practices, respond to enquiries and satisfy traceability requirements.
There are many ways to perform sprayer math, and you need only look to local pesticide safety courses, industrial catalogues, and extension resource centres for examples. If you’re already comfortable with your current method, don’t mix and match with others. Sprayer math is a series of related calculations that employ constants to keep the units straight. It’s all or none.
Walkthrough
Let’s start with the classic, US Imperial formula for calculating the required nozzle output. In other words, you want to know which nozzle size you need to get the volume-per-planted area you’re aiming for. This is the bread-and-butter formula that seems to be needed most often, so that’s why we list it first.
In order to determine nozzle size (gallons per minute), you’ll need to know your target volume (gallons per acre), your average travel speed (miles per hour) and your nozzle spacing (in inches). The number “5,940” is a constant that handles all the unit conversions. It is what it is.
GPM = [GPA x MPH x W] ÷ 5,940
Of course, this formula can be adjusted to allow you to solve for any factor, as long as you’re only missing one piece of information. Algebra is all about solving for X, or in other words, determining some unknown variable. I know, it’s been a long time since you learned this in school and it doesn’t come easily to most. I propose brushing up on the basics using a series of three great YouTube videos from “Mathantics“
As we noted earlier, you can do a lot more with sprayer math than just pick the ideal nozzle. But before we continue, a warning: If you live where units are strictly US Imperial, or strictly Metric, then Canada’s odd hybrid “Mock-tric” units can get a little confusing. The rest of this article attempts to be globally-relevant by including examples of both Metric and US Imperial formulae, but watch out for unit conversions. If at any time you don’t see the units you’re looking for, you can consult our exhaustive list of unit conversion tables.
Grab your calculator or favourite smart phone app – it’s math time!
Don’t be intimidated. With a little practice, sprayer math gets easier and it’s always worthwhile. The real trick is navigating unit conversions.
Step 1 – How large is the area you need to spray?
Multiply the length of the area you plan to spray times the width. If you are using metres, then divide the product by 10,000, which is the number of m² in a hectare (ha). For feet and acres, divide by 43,560 which is the number of ft² in an acre (ac):
Step 2 – How much product is needed to spray the area?
Consult the rate(s) shown on the label. In Canada, rates are often based on planted area (E.g. hectares). In Australia and New Zealand, they may be based on row length (not covered in this article). If you measure your area in acres, you’ll have to convert the rate by multiplying by a constant: 0.4.
Now multiply the area you want to spray (step 1) by the rate (step 2).
Step 3 – How far can you go on a full tank?
You know your sprayer output (determined through calibration) so you divide that into your tank size. Watch your units:
Step 4 – How much pesticide per tank?
Multiply the area that can be sprayed per tank (Step 3) by the pesticide rate (Step 2). Again, watch your units:
Step 5 – How much area is left to spray?
Just subtract what you’ve already sprayed from the total area.
Step 6 – How much pesticide in the last, partially-full tank?
Multiply the area you have left to spray (Step 5) by the pesticide rate (Step 2). Yes, watch your units:
Step 7 – How much spray mix will I need for the partial tank to finish spraying the total area?
Multiply the area you have left to spray (Step 5) by the sprayer output (determined through calibration). Guess what? Watch your units:
Sample problems
Time to test your knowledge. Let’s suppose you want to apply a product rate of 3 L/ha to your blueberries. You calibrate your sprayer and determine your output to be 50 L/ha. Your tank holds 400 L of spray mix. Your planting is 500 m long and 200 m wide.
Q1 – How large is the area you need to spray?
Q2 – How much product is needed to spray the area?
Q3- How much area can be sprayed on one tank?
Q4 – How much product should be added to a full tank?
Q5 – After the tank is empty, how much area is left to spray?
Q6 – How much product to add to the last, partially full tank?
Q7 – How much spray mix will be needed to finish spraying?
Exceptions
Certain situations aren’t covered in this article. If you are spraying a greenhouse, the math is different. If you are performing a banded application, the math is different. And, if you’re an airblast operator trying to reconcile why a pesticide label uses planted area rather than canopy volume for its rates, you’re in for a lot of additional reading. Some of that latter process can be summed up in this infographic:
When you find a method that works for you, write it down and keep it with your spray records. Happy spraying!
May 7, 2024
What’s a Ramsay Valve?
This article has been modified with kind permission from an article on Retrofit Parts.
Liquid pressure in an agricultural sprayer must be controlled so as to apply the correct volume of spray per hectare.
For sprayers that use positive-displacement pumps driven by the tractor’s power take-off, higher flow rates are produced than are actually required. Part of the pump’s output is therefore returned to the tank through a bypass line (aka return line), and spray pressure is controlled by a regulating or relief valve in this bypass line.
Ordinary regulators can maintain a constant pressure if the volume of liquid does not vary too much. But when it’s necessary to shut off part of the spray-boom in order to avoid double-spraying, (or in the case of an airblast sprayer, shut off one side), there is a large increase in the bypass flow and this causes the pressure to rise unless special compensating valves are fitted and correctly set.
Ramsay (or Ramsay Nocton) pressure-sets automatically maintain constant pressure over a far wider range of variation in flow-rate; for example the bypass flow through Retrofit’s model can increase from 1 to 100 L/min with an increase in pressure of only 0.2 bar (~3 psi). Lechler also offers 1 1/4″ and 2″ thread models called “AirPress” with different flow and pressure metrics. Each model allows the spray boom to be shut off with ordinary diaphragm check valves and also allows the operator to change gear (and so change the pump speed) without affecting the pressure.
Ramsay pressure-sets are non-electric, and the only moving part is a flexible diaphragm. The working pressure is set by inflating the pressure-set with air.
It is often desirable to vary the pressure while spraying, either automatically or manually. This can be done by a small electric air compressor and two valves which respectively increase or reduce the air pressure behind the diaphragm. These valves may be actuated by an electronic ground-speed-related system, or controlled manually by the operator.
How it Works
When the pressure in the IN chamber exceeds the air pressure it pushes the diaphragm away from the holes (as shown below) allowing some of the liquid to pass across to the OUT chamber, thus relieving the pressure (A backing plate, not shown in the diagram, prevents the diaphragm from being stretched too far).
A Ramsay valve with the diaphragm closed. Pressure in the IN chamber does not exceed the air pressure behind the diaphragm.
In practice, the diaphragm opens just as far as it needs to for the liquid pressure and the air pressure to come into equilibrium. When a boom is shut off and more flow needs to return to the tank, the diaphragm opens wider and remains in equilibrium in its new position.
A Ramsay valve with the diaphragm open. Pressure in the IN chamber exceeds the air pressure behind the diaphragm and can flow past to the OUT chamber.
Consequently, as long as there are no restrictions in the line back to the tank, the pressure remains constant even when there are large changes in pump speed or spray speed-boom demand. Pressure varies only slightly as the compression of the air in the air-reservoir varies with the movement of the diaphragm.
April 8, 2024
Calibrating a Plot Sprayer for Airblast Crops
The calibration of handheld plot sprayers is an important part of agricultural research, and this article already covers all the bases… as long as you are spraying broadacre or row crops. But what happens when you are trying to emulate an airblast sprayer and treating a tree, bush, cane or vine?
The key difference is that spraying a two dimensional area requires the operator to pass the boom over the target at a uniform height and pace to achieve consistent coverage. But, a three-dimensional target requires the operator to circle the target, or spray from both sides, until it has received the required dose (or volume).
In order to scale down a typical airblast carrier volume for small plot work, we need to know three things:
1. The area you wish to treat (e.g. bush, grape panel, tree, etc.), including it’s share of the alley (in m²).
2. The emission rate from the calibrated plot sprayer (in US gal./min.)
3. The airblast carrier volume you wish to scale down (e.g. L/ha).
The illustration below shows two options for calculating the treated area. Option A requires you to measure from the outermost edges of the canopy (imagine if the canopy was wet and dripping – the dripline is that outermost point). It is less consistent than the preferred Option B, where the area is determined from row centres and planting distance.
Two options for scaling down an airblast carrier volume for small plot work. Both produce the same treated area, but Option B is the preferred method.
Use the average planting distance and row spacing in metres. For a panel of grapes, use the centre of each panel as the planting distance.
If you are using a CO₂ powered hand wand (preferred over a manual pump) with one or more hydraulic nozzles, then you can calibrate it using the methods in this article. There are battery-powered options from Jacto and Petra Tools, the latter offering a battery powered ULV system as well. Makita also has a battery entry (image below). However, if you are using a backpack mistblower, which better approximates an airblast sprayer compared to a hydraulic hand boom (see this article), it requires a different approach. Plus, you get to look like a Ghostbuster, which is a win in my book.
PM001GL201 – 40V max XGT Brushless Cordless 15L Backpack Mist Blower (8.0Ah x2 Kit)
Follow along in the following images as we explore how to calibrate a backpack step by step:
When transporting a mistblower, use a loop of nylon cord to secure the boom in an upright position.
For calibration, fill the completely empty sprayer with a known volume of water. If the boom is gravity-fed, be sure the feed valve is closed so the water doesn’t run out of the boom.
With the sprayer on the ground, brace it with your foot. Step on the metal frame, not the motor housing or tank. Follow the operating instructions to pull start the motor.
Being cautious of the hot exhaust, set the sprayer on a tailgate, or other elevated surface to facilitate strapping it on.
Be aware that most mistblowers use gravity to feed the spray mix from the tank to the boom. A pressure pump kit is recommended for applications where the spray tube is held upward more than 30 degrees to maintain a consistent discharge rate. A hip belt is also recommended to reduce fatigue. Examples are shown below are for Stihl-brand sprayers. Some may or may not require the pump (e.g. Tomahawk) but they are primarily intended for mosquito control and in that case a consistent rate over a vertical plane may not be as important.
If your sprayer does not have a pump kit, pointing the boom upward will cause spray to slow or even stop. This greatly diminishes your ability to reach high targets and achieve consistent coverage. In this case, attach the deflector (which comes with the sprayer) before proceeding with the calibration.
Deflectors angle the spray upwards without having to lift the boom. This is easier on your shoulder and keeps the rate consistent.
Set the flow rate to the preferred setting (usually a dial at the end of the boom), and using a stopwatch, time how long it takes to spray the entire volume. Be sure to move the boom exactly as you would when spraying the target, either side-to-side or up-and-down, to capture possible rate changes from the gravity feed. Convert the output to US gal./min.
When timing output, move the boom as you would when spraying the target.
Alternately, some people will stand on a bathroom scale with the backpack full. Then get off and spray for a period of time. Then get back on the scale. One millilitre of water weighs one gram, so you can calculate the flow from the weight difference.
Now you know the area and the emission rate. You should have a target carrier volume in mind (e.g. L/ha). Using the following example, let’s determine how long you need to spray the target:
A sample calibration.
In this example, an ideal airblast Carrier Volume [C] for the orchard is 400 L/ha. We want to scale this down to determine the Volume for Treated Area [V]. First, divide [C] by 100 to convert it to 40 mL/m². Then, because in Canada our nozzles are in US units, we do an ugly conversion: Since 1 mL = 0.000264 US gallons, [C] becomes 0.0106 US gal./m².
The Treated Area [A] measures 3.5 m by 2 m = 7 m².
The Emission Rate [R] is the rate the plot sprayer sprays. While we prefer using a mistblower, many still use a hand wand with no air assist. In this case let’s suppose we are using a hand wand with two 8002 flat fan nozzles operating at 40 psi. According to our calibration, we confirm it sprays 0.4 US gal./min.
- [C](US gal./m²) × [A](m²) = [V] (US gal.)
- 0.0106 US gal./m² × 7 m² = 0.074 US gal.
We know we want to spray the target with 0.074 US gal., and we also know [R] which says our boom emits 0.4 US gal./min. We convert this to seconds by dividing by 60, so [R] = 0.0067 US gal./sec. From this we can calculate how long [T] we must spray the target.
- [V](US gal.) / [R](US gal./sec.) = [T](seconds).
- 0.074 US gal. / 0.0067 US gal./sec. = approximately 11.0 seconds.
So, we know that to spray the target with an equivalent 400 L/ha, we must achieve consistent coverage from all sides by spraying it for a total of 11 seconds. Pro tip: Always mix a little more spray volume than you will need to account for priming.
This is only one way to calibrate a backpack sprayer for spot spraying. If it’s isn’t quite what you need, check out these resources:
1. Calibrating a Knapsack Sprayer (www.weedfree.co.uk – 2008)
2. Don’t Overlook Backpack Sprayers (John Grande, Rutgers)
3. Hand Sprayer Calibration Steps Worksheet (Bob Wolf, Kansas State University – 2010)
4. Sprayer Calibration Using the 1/128th Method for Motorized Backpack Mist Sprayer Systems (Jensen Uyeda et al., University of Hawai’i – 2015)
Pro Tip: To maintain a consistent boom height without a wheel, coil a measured length of wire from a plot marker flag to guide you.
May 12, 2023
Calibrating a Plot Sprayer
It’s the rite of passage of many agricultural summer students across the world: applying experimental treatments to field plots using a research sprayer. The results of these experiments may be the basis of new product use registrations, or provide clues into future scientific studies. Needless to say, the application method needs to be bullet proof to ensure the results are reliable. Here are a few guidelines, starting with some tips:
Pro Tips:
1. When assembling a hand-held boom, ensure the threads are properly sealed using Teflon tape. More or less tape can be used to create a snug fit at the right part of the thread rotation.
2. Choose nozzle bodies with diaphragm shutoff valves. These valves stop flow below 10 psi and prevent dripping of the nozzles after shutoff, without pressure drop during operation.
3. Avoid the use of older style “check-valve strainers”. Although these also prevent drips, they create a pressure loss of about 5 psi which creates uncertainty around the actual spray pressure.
4. Install a trusted pressure gauge on the handle of the sprayer in clear view for the operator. This provides important information. Don’t believe the gauge on the regulator. Ours, for example, is stuck at 30 psi.
5. For hand-held booms, rotate the booms so that the nozzles point down, for each application. Different size people or height of crops will change this angle and make accuracy more difficult.
6. Set the boom height so that you achieve 100% pattern overlap. This means that a nozzle’s pattern width should be twice the boom’s nozzle spacing. Boom height will be close to 50 to 55 cm above target, depending on fan. Too low, and the pattern may cause striping. Your supervisor will see that all year long and think of you.
7. You can test the spray pattern by applying water to a concrete pad. At the right boom height, the entire boom width should dry at a similar rate.
8. Install a visual guide for boom height. For example, place a wire flag at the end of the plot, at the correct height. This will provide a handy reference of boom height as your arms get weary. Or hang a wire, zip tie, or chain from a spot that doesn’t interfere with your spray pattern (thanks ACC).
9. Minimize weight by using smaller bottles of CO₂. We use 20 oz paintball bottles, they are much lighter, last long enough, and can be legally refilled with liquid CO₂ or topped up with gas from a nurse tank in the field.
10. Spray out leftover mix in a designated part of the plot area. Do not pour any mix on the ground. Please. Consider a biobed on your research farm.
11. When completing a treatment, spray the boom completely empty so air comes out of each nozzle. This provides certainty that the next liquid at the nozzles is from the next bottle, be it water or another treatment.
12. When spraying dose responses of the same product, always start with the lowest dose. Again, spray out in a designated place until the boom produces air, no need to flush.
13. Construct a boom hanger from electric fence posts and coat hangers. Nozzles face down and can be serviced. The boom should never lie on the ground.
14. Use nozzle screens to prevent time delays due to plugging. Usually 50 (blue) or 80 (yellow) mesh is sufficient. Any finer mesh may interfere with some dry formulations. Note: Beware old screens – ISO mesh colours have changed. Learn more here.
15. It’s very useful to apply research sprays with low-drift nozzles. Air-induction tips are most effective. These reduce drift, and are also closer to the commercial spray quality used by producers.
16. 01 size (orange) air-induced nozzles are available from Albuz (AVI Twin and AVI), Arag (CFA, CFAU, AFC), Billericay (Air Bubble Jet), Greenleaf (AirMix and TurboDrop XL), Lechler (ID3 and IDK). No other major manufacturer produces this small size of tips in air-induction.
17. 015 size tips (green) and larger are produced by the above, as well as Albuz (CVI Twin and CVI), Hypro (GuardianAIR or ULD) and TeeJet (AIXR, AI, and TTI), within both manufacturers listed in order of increasing coarseness.
18. Always carry several other nozzles of the same size and type already on the boom. Should a nozzle plug, replace it, don’t clean it. Clean it later.
19. If a nozzle plugs and there is no extra nozzle, use compressed air to clean it. Compressed air electronics cleaners are available in most electronic stores.
20. If a plugged nozzle can’t be cleaned, simply place it at the end of the boom and continue. Plot ratings and yields are usually taken from the centre. Remind your supervisor of this.

21. Always de-pressurize a sprayer before disconnecting any liquid hoses. You can’t rely on check valves. If two people work together, make sure you practice and communicate this with each other.
Calibration:
1. Assemble the sprayer and run water through it to ensure it’s free from silt or residue. Repair leaks.
2. Install nozzles and ensure none are plugged and the pattern looks good.
3. While spraying water, set pressure to what you intend to spray with. (Note: boom pressure will be lower than regulator (attached to CO₂ canister) by a few psi, hence the separate pressure gauge on the boom. Also note that the set pressure will always be higher when the system is at rest.)
4. Obtain four containers of similar size that can hold about 500 mL, and place on ground at nozzle spacing. Using stopwatch, emit spray directly into all four for a set time, say 30 s.
5. Expected spray volume at 40 psi: 01 tip, 380 mL/min; 015 tip, 570 mL/min; 02 tip, 760 mL/min. In other words, from a 2 L bottle you’ll not get much more than 30 s spray time from 4 tips.
6. Measure collected volume from four tips using the same graduated cylinder.
7. Repeat, for total of three times.
8. Average three reps for each nozzle and convert to mL/min. Make sure all nozzles are within 5% of the average flow. Replace those that aren’t or place worst offender on outside edge of boom.
9. Advance to “Calculations”, but be prepared to conduct another calibration
Now for the fun part.
Calculations
There are three options for applying the correct amount. We’ll be using metric in these examples:
1. Use the average nozzle flow from the calibration (mL/min) and the target application volume (L/ha) to calculate the necessary walking speed (km/h);
  
  or
2. Use the flow from the calibration and a set walking speed to arrive at an application volume;
  
  or
3. Use a set walking speed and a set application volume to calculate a required calibrated flow.
Option 1:
Walking Speed = (60*flow)/(Volume*nozzle spacing)
If your nozzle flow was 330 mL/min and you wanted to apply 100 L/ha using a sprayer with 50 cm nozzle spacing, your required walking speed is 60*330/100/50 = 3.96 km/h
Option 2:
Application Volume = (60*flow)/(Speed*spacing)
If your nozzle flow was 330 mL/min and you wanted to walk 5 km/h using a sprayer with 50 cm nozzle spacing, your application volume is 60*330/5/50 = 79 L/ha
Option 3:
Required flow = (Speed *Volume*spacing)/60
If your speed is 5 km/h and you wanted to apply 100 L/ha using a sprayer with 50 cm nozzle spacing, your required flow is 5*100*50/60 = 417 mL/min
If you selected Option 3, you now need to return to your sprayer and find a nozzle, or a pressure, that delivers an average of 417 mL/min. You can use math to get into the ballpark with the nozzle you already have:
New Pressure = (required flow/calibrated flow)²*calibrated pressure
If your required flow is 417 mL/min and the calibrated flow is 330 mL/min, and you calibrated at 30 psi, then you should be close to your required flow at (417/330)²*30 = 48 psi
Now, return to your sprayer, set the pressure to 48 psi, and confirm this estimate.
We use Option 3 when comparing nozzles of the same size but from different manufacturers. It’s not uncommon for these to have slightly different outputs. Rather than adjusting our walking speed slightly, which is very difficult to do accurately, we change pressure slightly so all nozzles produce the same flow. This is also useful when comparing water volumes by switching to a larger nozzle.
Travel Speed:
The last step is to confirm travel speed. Say you want to walk at 5 km/h. The best way to calibrate walking speed is to measure a known distance (m) in the field you’ll spray. Wearing the gear and carrying the sprayer you will use to spray, walk this distance. Use a wire flag to mark the start and end points; when the boom hits the flags, start and stop the timer. Repeat until comfortable.
Time needed to walk distance:
Time (s) = Distance *3.6/required speed
Say your walking distance is 10 m, and you need to walk 5 km/h.
10*3.6/5 = 7.2 s
A simple spreadsheet that can be used for the calculations can be found here.
Congratulations! You’re done. Happy spraying! Remember to not worry too much about a 5% deviation from your expected application. That’s definitely an acceptable error, as long as you don’t allow too many of those to add up.
Low Volume Research (Aerial)
Some product uses are by air, and the label volumes for those are often 30 to 50 L/ha. Registrants need to provide efficacy data at those volumes. Ground application can be accepted as a surrogate for aerial as long as the volumes are correct.
Since the spray nozzles aren’t typically available below the 01 (orange) size and if they are, they usually plug so easily and make such a fine spray that they’re frustrating to use. The alternative, to travel faster, is also problematic on research plots.
We recommend that Turbo TeeJet nozzles be used for this purpose. They produce such a wide fan angle that a 100 cm spacing is justifiable. Simply cap off every second nozzle body. Booms need to be elevated to ensure overlap, for uniformity. The value of the small nozzles and wider spacings is the low total application volume that is now possible.
The TT tips can also be used at fairly low spray pressures (say 20 psi) further reducing their output.
Spray Quality of TeeJet Turbo TeeJet (ASABE S572.1). This tip is available in smaller sizes and, due to its wide fan angle, can be used at 40″ (100 cm) spacing, therefoe applying low water volumes.
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May 8, 2023
How to Calibrate a Drone
Calibration is a fundamental step in any spray application. To apply the correct product rate, we need to know how much liquid per unit land area is deposited under the sprayer.
To conduct the calculations, either manually or through the drone software, we need to know the width of the spray swath. This task requires the operation of the sprayer under typical conditions, some kind of sampler capture the spray deposit, and a means of quantifying that deposit so the spray pattern becomes apparent. Here’s how we do it:
1. Confirm the accuracy of the flow meter
Drones don’t typically report the spray pressure of the spray mix. Instead, they report the flow rate using a built-in flow meter. The drone maintains the desired application rate by using the flow rate to adjust pump speed and engage nozzles over a range of travel speeds. Because everything depends on the flow meter, its accuracy needs to be verified.
- Fill the spray tank with clean water and flush all the lines.
- Install nozzles required for task, ensuring all nozzles are identical and in good working order.
Nozzles installed on DJI T20 drone.
- Select the nozzle size you installed on the spray monitor.
- Purge the air from the system.
- Activate the spray and wait for the flow rate to stabilize on the spray monitor. This may take a few moments.
- With the nozzles flowing, place collectors under each nozzle and collect the spray liquid for a fixed time, say one minute.
Capturing spray during flow meter calibration.
- Ensure the collector catches all the spray. Buckets often create turbulence. Rotary atomizers make this more difficult.
- When the time elapses, remove the collectors and then shut off the spray.
- Unless the shutoff is very fast and positive, leaving the collectors in place during shutoff can introduce error as the flow diminishes.
- Confirm that the volume collected from each nozzle was identical, and that the flow rate reported by the drone flow meter is accurate.
- Repeat to ensure consistency.
Use of a Spot-On digital calibrating cup ensures that all spray is captured and it also reports the volume instantly.
2. Measure the swath width
Spray swath width is variable. For a measurement to be relevant we must evaluate spray deposition under environmental conditions that are similar to the planned spray operation, as well as use the same operational settings such as altitude, travel speed, nozzle choice, and application volume.
Spray samplers are positioned along the ground, perpendicular to the flight path. We use water-sensitive paper (WSP) because it’s readily available, fast and easy to use, and the deposits can be analyzed visually or using simple apps that calculate coverage. We create a sampling line of WSP positioned a 1 m intervals (or maybe 0.5 m for narrow swaths). The samplers should extend to twice the expected swath width to account for any swath displacement from sidewinds.
- Choose a day with light, consistent winds.
- Find an open space free of obstruction in the direction of the prevailing wind.
- Install a weather station to document conditions during flight.
A Kestrel 3550AG or 5550AG wind meter can record weather data and download to a phone via Bluetooth.
- Mark an approximately 200 m long flight line into the prevailing wind direction by placing wire flags every 50 m.
- At the 150 m mark, use wire flags to centre a sampler line perpendicular to the flight path. Sampler line length should be about twice the expected swath width.
Swath sampling line
- Wooden blocks with paper clips can be used to secure WSP at regular intervals along the sampler line.
Wooden blocks attached to a 4″ tow strap allows for easy setup and movement of sampling line.
- Fill the drone 1/2 full.
- Manually fly the drone along the entire flight line. The spray pressure, flow rate and altitude of the drone should be stable before it reaches the sampler line. This may take 25 meters or more depending on drone model, flight speed and drone weight.
- Fly 50 m past the sampling line without any drone maneuvering to avoid affecting the deposit.
- Land the drone and walk along the sampler line.
- Note the deposits in the central region. Walk along line as the deposits taper off, looking for deposits that are approximately 50% of the average central deposits.
Water-sensitive paper following a drone application.
- Estimate the distance between these deposits on both edges of the swath. This is the estimated swath width that can be entered for the second flight.
- Replace the WSP with a fresh set, refill the drone to 1/2 full, and repeat the flight two more times.
Other methods perform a more advanced assessment by analyzing the entire swath, and not just intervals. These methods use dyes and dedicated hardware to quantify the deposits along strings or paper samplers.
The Swath Gobbler documents swaths at high resolution using lengths of 3″ bonded receipt paper, food grade dye, and a digital scanner.
The Application Insight LLC Swath Gobbler scanner in action.
3. Analyze the Pattern
The nearest approximation for drone swathing is that of a manned aircraft. The spray pattern of an aircraft is tapered, meaning the highest deposition is near the centre of the swath, and the edges of the swath fade to zero deposit. In order to achieve consistent coverage, we need the edges of the spray swath to overlap so the cumulative coverage at the edges is closer to that in the centre. Too little overlap leaves gaps and too much overlap results in excessive deposit.
Insufficient overlap creates gaps in coverage
Excessive overlap results in over-dosing and waste
Correct overlap is necessary for efficient and effective application.
Deposits from drones can be highly variable. The challenge is to find an overlap distance that minimizes this variability, minimizes both over- and under-application, and maximizes swath width. Download a copy of our Excel spreadsheet to help you with this process.
Drone-Pattern-Swath-Width-1 Download
The first step is to estimate a reasonable average deposit, called “Threshold”. Graph the deposits from each sampler, and estimate a point on the Y axis (Relative Deposition) that represents the average maximum deposit. This could be the maximum value of the plateau, or a midpoint between the maximum and a nearby dip. This is the Threshold. We then take 50% of this estimated average deposit, and find the two distances on the X axis (Sampler Locations) that intersect the curve at these points. The distance between these two points is our first estimate of the swath width. If two adjacent swaths are spaced so the edge of one overlaps 50% with the next, the overall cumulative deposit should be relatively even.
The coverage information from each sampler location is graphed to create a deposit pattern.
We can alter the amount of overlap to improve the apparent uniformity, but be cautious. For example, even though we can often improve the uniformity by narrowing the swath width, this can add deposit to the area under the drone and raise the overall deposit amount. Plus, the narrower swath also lowers the productivity of the drone. Use the Excel model to establish a swath width that has the lowest variability (Coefficient of Variability or CV) AND results in a balance between over- and under-dosing.
The amount of overlap is adjusted to minimize variability (CV) and both equalize and minimize over- and under-dosing.
4. Recognize the factors that influence swath width
Operational use case affects swath width
Swath width is affected by altitude, speed, water volume and spray quality. Generally, higher altitudes, lower volumes, and finer sprays will result in a wider swath. Unfortunately, the same configuration also results in greater drift. It is recommended that swath widths be determined for each spray volume and nozzle arrangement that will be used.
Drones will be applying low water volumes and this requires a critical assessment of coverage to ensure the deposit density is sufficient to achieve the desired result. A low volume will require a finer spray for minimum coverage to be realized. Coarser sprays that reduce drift and evaporation will need higher water volumes and result in narrower swaths. Significant time may need to be invested to understand the effects of operational settings and environmental conditions on spray deposit uniformity and swath width.
Effective Swath Width and the Agronomic Use Case
The relatively sparse coverage at the extremes of the measured swath width may be insufficient to elicit the desired biological result. The Effective Swath Width (ESW) represents the segment of the total swath width that results in pesticide efficacy. In some use cases, the two widths can be similar, but typically the ESW is only a fraction.
The difference is influenced by the “Agronomic Use Case” which includes factors such as:
- Spray mix rheology (i.e. the interaction of spray mix viscosity and atomizer design on droplet size)
- Minimum effective dose: This is a complex relationship between coverage, spray mix concentration and pesticide mode-of-action that results in an effective result while minimizing the environmental impact.
- Target location (e.g. a pest within a dense canopy or a weed on relatively bare ground)
Taken collectively, research has shown a 20-30% reduction in ESW for corn, wheat and soybean fungicide applications compared to swaths measured on open ground. Conversely, herbicides sprayed on bare earth or sparse vegetation can produce an efficacious response 20% wider than the measured swath width. The impact of agronomic use case on ESW must be considered during mission planning.
Additional pointers
Here are a few tips and tricks to help you be successful when calibrating your drone.
- Drone patterns will have deposit peaks and valleys in the central region. Repeated runs are needed to confirm that these are real and persistent. If so, then adjustments in flying height, spray quality, or water volume may be needed to eliminate them.
- The absence of pressure gauges on drones can be corrected by installing an analog gauge in-line with one of the spray nozzles. If may be necessary to mount an auxiliary camera on the drone to record this gauge. We have observed strong fluctuations in spray pressure, particularly on starting a spray swath, that were not reflected in the reported flow rate.
A pressure gauge can be plumbed into a drone without affecting flight behaviour. A camera is trained on it to read pressure during a flight.
- Many drones have the option of recording the flight screen during a mission. This will provide a record of the performance of the drone, and can be valuable should performance problems arise.
- Although swath width calibration is done by flying into a headwind, the actual spray application should be done with a side wind. Start at the downwind edge of the field and turn into the wind. The drone is symmetrical and the tapered spray patterns should equalize the deposits. Alternately, flying into a headwind and returning with a tailwind can alter the aerodynamics of the spray deposition process, alternating between a wider and more narrow swath width, respectively.
Drone spraying will walk a razor’s edge of sorts – there is little room for error when using scant water and fine droplets. Getting the basics right has never been more important.
April 20, 2023